Culture

Introduction (Culture And Socialisation)

One of the most remarkable facts about human beings is that they are not born with the instincts to guide their behaviour. A newborn infant is completely helpless and does not automatically know how to be a member of society. This is where the concepts of culture and socialisation become crucial. Humans are distinct from other animals because almost all of our behaviour is learned, not innate.

Culture refers to the entire way of life of a group of people. It is the shared and learned set of beliefs, values, norms, language, symbols, and material objects that are passed down from one generation to the next. It is the 'software' that makes society work, providing its members with a shared framework for understanding the world and interacting with one another.

Socialisation is the lifelong process through which individuals learn and internalize the culture of their society. It is the process by which a helpless infant gradually becomes a self-aware, knowledgeable person, skilled in the ways of the culture into which they were born. Socialisation is the vital link between the individual and society. It ensures the continuity of culture over time by teaching it to new members, and it is through this process that we develop our sense of self and our personal identity.

Without culture, we would not be 'human' in the way we understand the term today. We would lack language, morals, and a sense of identity. Without socialisation, culture could not be transmitted, and society could not exist. The two concepts are therefore inextricably linked and are fundamental to understanding the human experience.

Diverse Settings, Different Cultures

A central insight of sociology and anthropology is the immense diversity of human cultures. The ways of life, belief systems, and social practices found across the globe are extraordinarily varied. From the food people eat and the clothes they wear to their ideas about family, religion, and morality, human beings have created a vast array of different cultural worlds. Understanding this diversity is key to the sociological perspective.

Defining Culture

Culture is a very broad concept. A classic definition was given by the English anthropologist Edward Tylor in 1871: "Culture... is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."

Key elements of this definition are:

• It is a 'complex whole': Culture is not just a random collection of traits but an integrated system.
• It is acquired: Culture is learned, not biologically inherited. It is passed on through the process of socialisation.
• It is shared: Culture is a collective phenomenon, shared by the members of a group or society.

Sociologists often distinguish between two main components of culture:

• Non-material Culture: The intangible world of ideas created by members of a society, such as values, beliefs, norms, and language.
• Material Culture: The tangible things created by members of a society, such as tools, technology, clothing, buildings, and art.

Dimensions Of Culture

To analyse culture systematically, sociologists break it down into three main dimensions: the cognitive, the normative, and the material.

Cognitive Aspects Of Culture

This refers to how we learn to process information and think about the world. It includes the shared knowledge, beliefs, and language of a culture.

• Knowledge and Beliefs: Every culture provides its members with a stock of knowledge about the world and a set of beliefs about what is considered true or false. This can range from practical knowledge (how to grow crops) to religious beliefs (the existence of God).
• Language: Language is the most important component of culture. It is a system of symbols that allows people to communicate with one another. It is the primary vehicle for transmitting culture from one generation to the next. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests that language does not just describe our reality, but also shapes the way we think and perceive the world.

Normative Aspects Of Culture

This dimension consists of the rules of conduct and the standards for what is considered right and wrong, good and bad. It includes norms and values.

• Values: These are culturally defined standards that people use to decide what is desirable, good, and beautiful, and that serve as broad guidelines for social living. For example, Indian culture may place a high value on 'respect for elders', while American culture may place a high value on 'individualism'.
• Norms: These are the specific rules and expectations by which a society guides the behaviour of its members. Norms can be of different types:
  • Folkways: Norms for routine or casual interaction, like standards of dress or politeness. Violation of folkways is not considered serious.
  • Mores: Norms that are widely observed and have great moral significance. They are seen as essential to the core values of a society. Violation of mores (e.g., theft, adultery) can provoke a strong reaction.
  • Laws: Norms that are formally enacted by a political authority and are enforced by the power of the state.

Material Aspects Of Culture

This dimension includes all the physical, tangible objects that members of a society create and use. This includes a vast range of artefacts, from tools and technology to clothing, art, architecture, and consumer goods. The material culture of a society reflects its values and its level of technological development. For example, the prevalence of smartphones and the internet is a key feature of the material culture of modern societies, and it has profoundly reshaped our social interactions.

Culture And Identity

Culture is central to our sense of identity. The language we speak, the values we hold, and the customs we follow all contribute to defining who we are. In a diverse society like India, people have multiple identities based on their regional, linguistic, religious, and caste cultures. These cultural identities provide a sense of belonging but can also become a source of conflict when different groups compete for resources or recognition.

Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism is the practice of judging another culture by the standards of one's own culture. It involves the belief that one's own culture is superior to all others. While a degree of ethnocentrism can provide a sense of group solidarity, it can also lead to prejudice, discrimination, and conflict. It is a major barrier to understanding and appreciating cultural diversity.

The sociological alternative to ethnocentrism is cultural relativism. This is the practice of judging a culture by its own standards. It requires understanding unfamiliar values and norms from the point of view of the people who hold them. Cultural relativism is a crucial perspective for sociological research, as it allows for an objective analysis of different cultures without imposing one's own biases.

Cultural Change

Cultures are not static; they are constantly changing. Cultural change can be brought about by several factors:

• Invention: The process of creating new cultural elements.
- Discovery: Recognising and better understanding something already in existence.
• Diffusion: The spread of cultural traits from one society to another. In today's interconnected world, diffusion is rapid, a process often referred to as globalisation.

Cultural change can also be internal, arising from changes in the normative or cognitive aspects of culture. For example, the rise of the environmental movement has led to changes in cultural values regarding nature and consumption.